What is a special election?

A special election is an election held to fill a vacancy in an elected office that has become open between regular elections. Special elections occur most often when an elected official dies, resigns, is expelled, becomes incapacitated, or moves to a new office before completing the current term. The procedures and timing of special elections are set by state law for U.S. House seats, U.S. Senate seats, governorships, and other state and local offices, and by the U.S. Constitution and federal law for federal offices.

For U.S. House seats, special elections are held to fill vacancies. The Constitution requires that House vacancies be filled by election. Each state's law sets when the special election must be held. Some states hold special elections quickly, sometimes within a few months of the vacancy. Others schedule them along with the next regular election. Notable recent House special elections include the 2017 race in Georgia's 6th Congressional District (won by Republican Karen Handel after a high-profile campaign by Democrat Jon Ossoff), the 2023 special election in Rhode Island that elected Gabe Amo, and the 2024 special election in New York's 3rd Congressional District after George Santos was expelled.

For U.S. Senate seats, the 17th Amendment authorizes state legislatures to give governors the power to make temporary appointments and require special elections to fill vacancies. Most states give governors the power to appoint a temporary replacement, with a special election held later (often at the next regular election cycle) to choose someone to serve out the rest of the term. A few states require special elections more quickly. Several recent senators have been temporarily appointed by governors before winning special elections, including Mark Kelly of Arizona (appointed and then elected in 2020 to finish the term of John McCain, who died in 2018), Kelly Loeffler of Georgia (appointed in 2019 and lost a runoff special election in 2020), and others.

State and local special elections fill vacancies in governorships, state legislatures, mayors' offices, school boards, and other offices according to state and local law. Some states use special elections, while others have lieutenant governors or other officials succeed automatically. Special elections often have lower turnout than regular elections because they are held outside the normal election calendar. Despite lower turnout, special elections sometimes attract significant national attention and become test runs for the next regular election cycle. Both parties watch special election results closely for signals about the political environment.